October+Journals

Constitutional Theory, //The American Journey,// Chapters 7-11 and //Founding Brothers,// October Journal Entries:

=**Barbara Estes, Bagley Jr. High School**= Chapter 7 “The First Republic” Quite a bit of this chapter’s information was an examination of things of which I was aware. This is not meant to give the impression that I am a scholar on this topic. I did glean many interesting facts. One fact in particular that amazed me was related to the Republicanism idea of voting being limited to only property owners. I did not realize that 60 to 85pecent of adult white men living here in the eighteenth century owned property. This proportion was higher than anywhere else in the world. I also realize that, at that time, compared to the rest of the world there were not as many people living here either. Another fact, concerning women, was a surprise. I was not aware that in 1776, the New Jersey constitution had allowed its female population to vote. It was all in the “gender free” wording and the terms that all property owners worth fifty pounds could vote. This was rectified in an 1807 when the state changed the constitution and “fixed” the error. Also, I found the information about John Jay to be enlightening and explicit. I understand more about him, his involvement, his associations, and the regional antagonisms that emerged. The review of all of the plans considered when designing the Constitution was excellent. It also included some anecdotal things that related to the convention that are little “treasures” for the classroom, i.e., Patrick Henry’s they “smelt a rat.” The fact that the Preamble at one time listed all of the states before becoming “We the people of the United States…” These things are not particularly vital historically, but “trivia” is fun. This chapter elaborates upon the differences among the four main section of the U.S. in 1789 and how these differences played a major unsettling part in the fragile new Constitution.. __New England__ was the most uniform region in handling the ideas of religion and ethnicity. Surprisingly there were some liberating elements for women –education and divorce. __The Mid-Atlantic States__ were the most diverse. Freedom of worship was used to attract settlers. This section imported slaves but did pass laws of gradual emancipation. __The Southern states’__ soil was conducive to production of cash crops for world markets. This created the need for slave labor which made the South the most populous region. Slavery being the foundation of southern economy caused the wealthy planters to develop their own idea of power. __The West__ was the most rapidly developing region. It offered economic independence for many who had not had it previously. Life was harsh and deadly for many, especially infants. However, because of their desire for self sufficiency and to control their own lives they were willing to make deals with any powers offering to meet their needs. Other sectional factoids were discussed but these were ones which seemed to cause the most controversy within the new Republic. I found it enlightening that the first problem that needed to be decided after the finalization of the Constitution was how the president was to be addressed. I was further amazed to learn Congress was embroiled in this debate for a month. It appeared to me there were more important things to be debated such as the establishment of Executive departments, the federal judiciary, the Bill of Rights issue, revenue sources, and foreign policy. I hesitantly admit that I find financial matters beyond my understanding. The issues of the Federal debt with which Alexander Hamilton had to deal were indisputably difficult and agonizing. The Revolutionary War debt, plans of “assumption” and trying to allow for the fairness of regional debt fulfillment was confusing to me. I failed to comprehend the same ideas as explained in the book, //Our Founding Brothers// by Joseph Ellis, also. The many trials that were set before the new federal government, such as the Whisky Rebellion and the Battle of Fallen Timbers, showed the national government was ready to use force in order to obtain its goal. It also brought to light the conflicting visions of local liberty verses national order that was a threat to the new republic. Even Jay’s Treaty, though flawed, helped avert war and prepared the way for adoption of other treaties of importance. I found the situation that finalized the end of the Federalist party and the deadlocked electoral college votes for Jefferson and Burr most interesting. Especially interesting was learning that this situation was also the direct cause of the passage of the Twelfth Amendment.
 * Chapter 8 “A New Republic and the Rise of Parties**

=**Barry Johnson, Mt. Olive Elementary School**=

Chapter 7 In May 10, 1776, Congress passed a resolution advising the colonies to form new governments. On a national level, the "Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union" produced by John Dickinson in 1776, were adopted by the Continental Congress in November 1777, and they went into effect in 1781. The governmental framework established by the Articles had many weaknesses, for example the national government lacked the authority to set up tariffs, to regulate commerce and to levy taxes. It lacked sole control of international relations: a number of states had begun their own negotiations with foreign countries. Nine states had organized their own armies, and several had their own navies. One other thing of note is that political rights went only to white male property owners. At the time that was about 80% of the white male population. In the early years of the republic, when the Northern states were providing for immediate or gradual emancipation of the slaves, many leaders had supposed that slavery would die out. In 1786 George Washington wrote that he devoutly wished some plan might be adopted "by which slavery may be abolished by slow, sure and imperceptible degrees." Others making similar statements were: Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, all Virginians, and other leading Southern statesmen. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 had banned slavery in the Northwest Territory. Most northern states ended slavery between 1777 and 1784. More that 50,000 slaves gained independence as a result of the war. As late as 1808, when the international slave trade was abolished, there were many Southerners who thought that slavery would soon end. The expectation proved false, for during the next generation, the South became solidly united behind the institution of slavery as new economic factors made slavery far more profitable than it had been before 1790. However, by the early part of the nineteenth century more than one hundred thousand slaves were living free. The success of the Revolution gave Americans the opportunity to give legal form to their ideals as expressed in the Declaration of Independence, and to remedy some of their grievances through state constitutions. As early as May 10, 1776, Congress had passed a resolution advising the colonies to form new governments "such as shall best conduce to the happiness and safety of their constituents." Some of them had already done so, and within a year after the Declaration of Independence, all but three had drawn up constitutions. The new constitutions showed the impact of democratic ideas. None made any drastic break with the past, since all were built on the solid foundation of colonial experience and English practice. But each was also animated by the spirit of republicanism, an ideal that had long been praised by Enlightenment philosophers. Naturally, the first objective of the framers of the state constitutions was to secure those "unalienable rights" whose violation had caused the former colonies to repudiate their connection with Britain. Thus, each constitution began with a declaration or bill of rights. Virginia's, which served as a model for all the others, included a declaration of principles, such as popular sovereignty, rotation in office, freedom of elections and an enumeration of fundamental liberties: moderate bail and humane punishment, speedy trial by jury, freedom of the press and of conscience, and the right of the majority to reform or alter the government. Other states enlarged the list of liberties to guarantee freedom of speech, of assembly and of petition, and frequently included such provisions as the right to bear arms, to a writ of //habeas corpus//, to inviolability of domicile and to equal protection under the law. Moreover, all the constitutions paid allegiance to the three-branch structure of government -- executive, legislative and judiciary -- each checked and balanced by the others. Pennsylvania's constitution was the most radical. In that state, Philadelphia artisans, Scots-Irish frontiersmen and German-speaking farmers had taken control. The provincial congress adopted a constitution that permitted every male taxpayer and his sons to vote, required rotation in office (no one could serve as a representative more than four years out of every seven) and set up a single-chamber legislature. The state constitutions had some glaring limitations, particularly by more recent standards. Constitutions established to guarantee people their natural rights did not secure for everyone the most fundamental natural right -- equality. The colonies south of Pennsylvania excluded their slave populations from their inalienable rights as human beings. Women had no political rights. The struggle with England had done much to change colonial attitudes. Local assemblies had rejected the Albany Plan of Union in 1754, refusing to surrender even the smallest part of their autonomy to any other body, even one they themselves had elected. But in the course of the Revolution, mutual aid had proved effective, and the fear of relinquishing individual authority had lessened to a large degree. John Dickinson produced the "Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union" in 1776. The Continental Congress adopted them in November 1777, and they went into effect in 1781, having been ratified by all the states. The governmental framework established by the Articles had many weaknesses. The national government lacked the authority to set up tariffs when necessary, to regulate commerce and to levy taxes. It lacked sole control of international relations: a number of states had begun their own negotiations with foreign countries. Nine states had organized their own armies, and several had their own navies. There was a curious hodgepodge of coins and a bewildering variety of state and national paper bills, all fast depreciating in value. Economic difficulties after the war prompted calls for change. The end of the war had a severe effect on merchants who supplied the armies of both sides and who had lost the advantages deriving from participation in the British mercantile system. The states gave preference to American goods in their tariff policies, but these tariffs were inconsistent, leading to the demand for a stronger central government to implement a uniform policy. Farmers probably suffered the most from economic difficulties following the Revolution. The supply of farm produce exceeded demand, and unrest centered chiefly among farmer-debtors who wanted strong remedies to avoid foreclosure on their property and imprisonment for debt. Courts were clogged with suits for debt. All through the summer of 1786, popular conventions and informal gatherings in several states demanded reform in the state administrations. In the autumn of 1786, mobs of farmers in Massachusetts under the leadership of a former army captain, Daniel Shays, began forcibly to prevent the county courts from sitting and passing further judgments for debt, pending the next state election. In January 1787 a ragtag army of 1,200 farmers moved toward the federal arsenal at Springfield. The rebels, armed chiefly with staves and pitchforks, were repulsed by a small state militia force; General Benjamin Lincoln then arrived with reinforcements from Boston and routed the remaining Shaysites, whose leader escaped to Vermont. The government captured 14 rebels and sentenced them to death, but ultimately pardoned some and let the others off with short prison terms. After the defeat of the rebellion, a newly elected legislature, whose majority sympathized with the rebels, met some of their demands for debt relief. With the end of the Revolution, the United States again had to face the old unsolved Western question -- the problem of expansion, with its complications of land, fur trade, Indians, settlement and local government. Lured by the richest land yet found in the country, pioneers poured over the Appalachian Mountains and beyond. By 1775 the far-flung outposts scattered along the waterways had tens of thousands of settlers. Separated by mountain ranges and hundreds of kilometers from the centers of political authority in the East, the inhabitants established their own governments. Settlers from all the tidewater states pressed on into the fertile river valleys, hardwood forests and rolling prairies of the interior. By 1790 the population of the trans-Appalachian region numbered well over 120,000. Before the war, several colonies had laid extensive and often overlapping claims to land beyond the Appalachians. To those without such claims this rich territorial prize seemed unfairly apportioned. Maryland, speaking for the latter group, introduced a resolution that the western lands be considered common property to be parceled by the Congress into free and independent governments. This idea was not received enthusiastically. Nonetheless, in 1780 New York led the way by ceding its claims to the United States. In 1784 Virginia, which held the grandest claims, relinquished all land north of the Ohio River. Other states ceded their claims, and it became apparent that Congress would come into possession of all the lands north of the Ohio River and west of the Allegheny Mountains. This common possession of millions of hectares was the most tangible evidence yet of nationality and unity, and gave a certain substance to the idea of national sovereignty. At the same time, these vast territories were a problem that required solution. The Articles of Confederation offered an answer. Under the Articles, a system of limited self-government (set forth in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787) provided for the organization of the Northwest Territory, initially as a single district, ruled by a governor and judges appointed by the Congress. When this territory had 5,000 free male inhabitants of voting age, it was to be entitled to a legislature of two chambers, itself electing the lower house. In addition, it could at that time send a non-voting delegate to Congress. No more than five or fewer than three states were to be formed out of this territory, and whenever any one of them had 60,000 free inhabitants, it was to be admitted to the Union "on an equal footing with the original states in all respects." The Ordinance guaranteed civil rights and liberties, encouraged education and guaranteed that "there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the said territory." The new policy repudiated the time-honored concept that colonies existed for the benefit of the mother country and were politically subordinate and socially inferior. That doctrine was replaced by the principle that colonies are but the extension of the nation and are entitled, not as a privilege but as a right, to all the benefits of equality. These enlightened provisions of the Northwest Ordinance formed the basis for America's public land policy. Chapter 8 On September 17, 1787, after 16 weeks of deliberation, the finished Constitution was signed by 39 of the 42 delegates present. Franklin, pointing to the half-sun painted in brilliant gold on the back of Washington's chair, said: //I have often in the course of the session...looked at that [chair] behind the president, without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting; but now, at length, I have the happiness to know that it is a rising, and not a setting, sun.// The Convention was over; the members "adjourned to the City Tavern, dined together, and took a cordial leave of each other." Yet a crucial part of the struggle for a more perfect union was yet to be faced. The consent of popularly elected state conventions was still required before the document could become effective. The Convention had decided that the Constitution would take effect upon ratification by conventions in nine of the 13 states. By June 1788 the required nine states ratified the Constitution, but the large states of Virginia and New York had not. Most people felt that without the support of these two states, the Constitution would never be honored. To many, the document seemed full of dangers: would not the strong central government that it established tyrannize them, oppress them with heavy taxes and drag them into wars? Differing views on these questions brought into existence two parties, the Federalists, who favored a strong central government, and the Antifederalists, who preferred a loose association of separate states. Impassioned arguments on both sides were voiced by the press, the legislatures and the state conventions. In Virginia, the Antifederalists attacked the proposed new government by challenging the opening phrase of the Constitution: "We the People of the United States." Without using the individual state names in the Constitution, the delegates argued, the states would not retain their separate rights or powers. Virginia Antifederalists were led by Patrick Henry, who became the chief spokesman for back-country farmers who feared the powers of the new central government. Wavering delegates were persuaded by a proposal that the Virginia convention recommend a bill of rights, and Antifederalists joined with the Federalists to ratify the Constitution on June 25. In New York, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay and James Madison pushed for the ratification of the Constitution in a series of essays known as //The Federalist Papers//. The essays, published in New York newspapers, provided a now-classic argument for a central federal government, with separate executive, legislative and judicial branches that checked and balanced one another. With //The Federalist Papers// influencing the New York delegates, the Constitution was ratified on July 26. Antipathy toward a strong central government was only one concern among those opposed to the Constitution; of equal concern to many was the fear that the Constitution did not protect individual rights and freedoms sufficiently. Virginian George Mason, author of Virginia's 1776 Declaration of Rights, was one of three delegates to the Constitutional Convention who refused to sign the final document because it did not enumerate individual rights. Together with Patrick Henry, he campaigned vigorously against ratification of the Constitution by Virginia. Indeed, five states, including Massachusetts, ratified the Constitution on the condition that such amendments are added immediately. When the first Congress convened in New York City in September 1789, the calls for amendments protecting individual rights were virtually unanimous. Congress quickly adopted 12 such amendments; by December 1791, enough states had ratified 10 amendments to make them part of the Constitution. Collectively, they are known as the Bill of Rights. Among their provisions: freedom of speech, press, religion, and the right to assemble peacefully, protest and demand changes (First Amendment); protection against unreasonable searches, seizures of property and arrest (Fourth Amendment); due process of law in all criminal cases (Fifth Amendment); right to a fair and speedy trial (Sixth Amendment); protection against cruel and unusual punishment (Eighth Amendment); and provision that the people retain additional rights not listed in the Constitution (Ninth Amendment). One of the last acts of the Congress of the Confederation was to arrange for the first presidential election, setting March 4, 1789, as the date that the new government would come into being. One name was on everyone's lips for the new chief of state -- George Washington -- and he was unanimously chosen president on April 30, 1789. In words spoken by every president since, Washington pledged to execute the duties of the presidency faithfully and, to the best of his ability, to "preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States." When Washington took office, the new Constitution enjoyed neither tradition nor the full backing of organized public opinion. Moreover, the new government had to create its own machinery. No taxes were forthcoming. Until a judiciary could be established, laws could not be enforced. The Army was small. The Navy had ceased to exist. Congress quickly created the departments of State and Treasury, with Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton as their respective secretaries. Simultaneously, the Congress established the federal judiciary, establishing not only a Supreme Court, with one chief justice and five associate justices, but also three circuit courts and 13 district courts. Both a secretary of war and an attorney general were also appointed. And since Washington generally preferred to make decisions only after consulting those men whose judgment he valued, the American presidential Cabinet came into existence, consisting of the heads of all the departments that Congress might create. Meanwhile, the country was growing steadily and immigration from Europe was increasing. Americans were moving westward: New Englanders and Pennsylvanians into Ohio; Virginians and Carolinians into Kentucky and Tennessee. Good farms were to be had for small sums; labor was in strong demand. The rich valley stretches of upper New York, Pennsylvania and Virginia soon became great wheat-growing areas At this critical juncture in the country's growth, Washington's wise leadership was crucial. He organized a national government; developed policies for settlement of territories previously held by Britain and Spain, stabilized the northwestern frontier and oversaw the admission of three new states: Vermont (1791), Kentucky (1792) and Tennessee (1796). Finally, in his Farewell Address, Washington warned the nation to "steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world." This advice influenced American attitudes toward the rest of the world for generations to come. Chapter 9 George Washington retired in 1797, firmly declining to serve for more than eight years as the nation's head. His vice president, John Adams of Massachusetts, was elected the new president. Even before he entered the presidency, Adams had quarreled with Alexander Hamilton -- and thus was handicapped by a divided party. These domestic difficulties were compounded by international complications: France, angered by Jay's recent treaty with Britain, used the British argument that food supplies, naval stores and war materiel bound for enemy ports were subject to seizure by the French navy. By 1797 France had seized 300 American ships and had broken off diplomatic relations with the United States. When Adams sent three other commissioners to Paris to negotiate, agents of Foreign Minister Charles Maurice de Talleyrand (whom Adams labeled X, Y and Z in his report to Congress) informed the Americans that negotiations could only begin if the United States loaned France $12 million and bribed officials of the French government. American hostility to France rose to an excited pitch. The so-called XYZ Affair led to the enlistment of troops and the strengthening of the fledgling U.S. Navy. In 1799, after a series of sea battles with the French, war seemed inevitable. In this crisis, Adams thrust aside the guidance of Hamilton, who wanted war, and sent three new commissioners to France. Napoleon, who had just come to power, received them cordially, and the danger of conflict subsided with the negotiation of the Convention of 1800, which formally released the United States from its 1778 defense alliance with France. However, reflecting American weakness, France refused to pay $20 million in compensation for American ships taken by the French navy. Hostility to France led Congress to pass the Alien and Sedition Acts, which had severe repercussions for American civil liberties. The Naturalization Act, which changed the requirement for citizenship from five to 14 years, was targeted at Irish and French immigrants suspected of supporting the Republicans. The Alien Act, operative for two years only, gave the president the power to expel or imprison aliens in time of war. The Sedition Act proscribed writing, speaking or publishing anything of "a false, scandalous and malicious" nature against the president or Congress. The few convictions won under the Sedition Act only created martyrs to the cause of civil liberties and aroused support for the Republicans. The acts met with resistance. Jefferson and Madison sponsored the passage of the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions by the legislatures of the two states in November and December 1798. According to the resolutions, states could "interpose" their views on federal actions and "nullify" them. The doctrine of nullification would be used later for the Southern states' defense of their interests vis-à-vis the North on the question of the tariff, and, more ominously, slavery. By 1800 the American people were ready for a change. Under Washington and Adams, the Federalists had established a strong government, but sometimes failing to honor the principle that the American government must be responsive to the will of the people, they had followed policies that alienated large groups. For example, in 1798 they had enacted a tax on houses, land and slaves, affecting every property owner in the country. Jefferson had steadily gathered behind him a great mass of small farmers, shopkeepers and other workers, and they asserted themselves in the election of 1800. Jefferson enjoyed extraordinary favor because of his appeal to American idealism. In his inaugural address, the first such speech in the new capital of Washington, D.C., he promised "a wise and frugal government" to preserve order among the inhabitants but would "leave them otherwise free to regulate their own pursuits of industry, and improvement." One of Jefferson's acts doubled the area of the country. At the end of the Seven Years' War, France had ceded to Spain the territory west of the Mississippi River, with the port of New Orleans near its mouth -- a port indispensable for the shipment of American products from the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. Shortly after Jefferson became president, Napoleon forced a weak Spanish government to cede the great tract called Louisiana back to France. The move filled Americans with apprehension and indignation. Napoleon's plans for a huge colonial empire just west of the United States threatened the trading rights and the safety of all American interior settlements. Jefferson asserted that if France took possession of Louisiana, "from that moment we must marry ourselves to the British fleet and nation." Napoleon, knowing that another war with Great Britain was impending, resolved to fill his treasury and put Louisiana beyond the reach of the British by selling it to the United States. This put Jefferson in a constitutional quandary: the Constitution gave no office the power to purchase territory. At first Jefferson wanted to amend the Constitution, but his advisers told him that delay might lead Napoleon to change his mind -- and that the power to purchase territory was inherent in the power to make treaties. Jefferson relented, saying that "the good sense of our country will correct the evil of loose construction when it shall produce ill effects." For $15 million, the United States obtained the "Louisiana Purchase" in 1803. It contained more than 2,600,000 square kilometers as well as the port of New Orleans. The nation had gained a sweep of rich plains, mountains, forests and river systems that within 80 years would become the nation's heartland -- and one of the world's great granaries. As Jefferson began his second term in 1805, he declared American neutrality during the struggle between Great Britain and France. Although both sides sought to restrict neutral shipping to the other, British control of the seas made its interdiction and seizure much more serious than any actions by Napoleonic France. By 1807 the British had built their navy to more than 700 warships manned by nearly 150,000 sailors and marines. The massive force controlled the sea lanes: blockading French ports, protecting British commerce and maintaining the crucial links to Britain's colonies. Yet the men of the British fleet lived under such harsh conditions that it was impossible to obtain crews by free enlistment. Many sailors deserted and found refuge on U.S. vessels. In these circumstances, British officers regarded it as their right to search American ships and take off British subjects, to the great humiliation of the Americans. Moreover, British officers frequently impressed American seamen into their service. When Jefferson issued a proclamation ordering British warships to leave U.S. territorial waters, the British reacted by impressing more sailors. Jefferson decided to rely on economic pressure to force the British to back down. In December 1807 Congress passed the Embargo Act, forbidding all foreign commerce. Ironically, the Republicans, the champions of limited government, had passed a law that vastly increased the powers of the national government. In a single year American exports fell to one-fifth of their former volume. Shipping interests were almost ruined by the measure, and discontent rose in New England and New York. Agricultural interests found that they too were suffering heavily, for prices dropped drastically when the Southern and Western farmers could not export their surplus grain, cotton, meat and tobacco. The hope that the embargo would starve Great Britain into a change of policy failed. As the grumbling at home increased, Jefferson turned to a milder measure, which conciliated domestic shipping interests. In early 1809 he signed the Non-Intercourse Act permitting commerce with all countries except Britain or France and their dependencies. James Madison succeeded Jefferson as president in 1809. Relations with Great Britain grew worse, and the two countries moved rapidly toward war. The president laid before Congress a detailed report, showing several thousand instances in which the British had impressed American citizens. In addition, northwestern settlers had suffered from attacks by Indians whom they believed had been incited by British agents in Canada. This led many Americans to favor conquest of Canada. Success in such an endeavor would eliminate British influence among the Indians and open up new lands for colonization. The desire to conquer Canada, coupled with deep resentment over imprisonment of sailors, generated war fervor, and in 1812 the United States declared war on Britain. As the country prepared for yet another war with Britain, the United States suffered from internal divisions. While the South and West favored war, New York and New England opposed it because it interfered with their commerce. The declaration of war had been made with military preparations still far from complete. There were fewer than 7,000 regular soldiers, distributed in widely scattered posts along the coast, near the Canadian border and in the remote interior. These soldiers were to be supported by the undisciplined militia of the states. Hostilities between the two countries began with an invasion of Canada, which, if properly timed and executed, would have brought united action against Montreal. But the entire campaign miscarried and ended with the British occupation of Detroit. The U.S. Navy, however, scored successes and restored confidence. In addition, American privateers, swarming the Atlantic, captured 500 British vessels during the fall and winter months of 1812 and 1813. The campaign of 1813 centered on Lake Erie. General William Henry Harrison -- who would later become president -- led an army of militia, volunteers and regulars from Kentucky with the object of re-conquering Detroit. On September 12, while he was still in upper Ohio, news reached him that Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry had annihilated the British fleet on Lake Erie. Harrison occupied Detroit and pushed into Canada, defeating the fleeing British and their Indian allies on the Thames River. The entire region now came under American control. Another decisive turn in the war occurred a year later when Commodore Thomas Macdonough won a point-blank gun duel with a British flotilla on Lake Champlain in upper New York. Deprived of naval support, a British invasion force of 10,000 men retreated to Canada. At about the same time, the British fleet was harassing the Eastern seaboard with orders to "destroy and lay waste." On the night of August 24, 1814, an expeditionary force burst into Washington, D.C., home of the federal government, and left it in flames. President James Madison fled to Virginia. As the war continued, British and American negotiators each demanded concessions from the other. The British envoys decided to concede, however, when they learned of Macdonough's victory on Lake Champlain. Urged by the Duke of Wellington to reach a settlement, and faced with the depletion of the British treasury due in large part to the heavy costs of the Napoleonic Wars, the negotiators for Great Britain accepted the Treaty of Ghent in December 1814. It provided for the cessation of hostilities, the restoration of conquests and a commission to settle boundary disputes. Unaware that a peace treaty had been signed, the two sides continued fighting in New Orleans, Louisiana. Led by General Andrew Jackson, the Americans scored the greatest land victory of the war. While the British and Americans were negotiating a settlement, Federalist delegates selected by the legislatures of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Vermont and New Hampshire gathered in Hartford, Connecticut, in a meeting that symbolized opposition to "Mr. Madison's war." New England had managed to trade with the enemy throughout the conflict, and some areas actually prospered from this commerce. Nevertheless, the Federalists claimed that the war was ruining the economy. Some delegates to the convention advocated secession from the Union, but the majority agreed on a series of constitutional amendments to limit Republican influence, including prohibiting embargoes lasting more than 60 days and forbidding successive presidents from the same state. By the time messengers from the Hartford Convention reached Washington, D.C., however, they found the war had ended. The Hartford Convention stamped the Federalists with a stigma of disloyalty from which they never recovered. Chapter 10 Because Jackson's political opponents had no hope of success so long as they remained at cross purposes, they attempted to bring all the dissatisfied elements together into a common party called the Whigs. Although they organized soon after the election campaign of 1832, it was more than a decade before they reconciled their differences and were able to draw up a platform. Largely through the magnetism of Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, the Whigs' most brilliant statesmen, the party solidified its membership. But in the 1836 election, the Whigs were still too divided to unite behind a single man or upon a common platform. New York's Martin Van Buren, Jackson's vice president, won the contest. An economic depression and the larger-than-life personality of his predecessor obscured Van Buren's merits. His public acts aroused no enthusiasm, for he lacked the compelling qualities of leadership and the dramatic flair that had attended Jackson's every move. The election of 1840 found the country afflicted with hard times and low wages -- and the Democrats on the defensive. The Whig candidate for president was William Henry Harrison of Ohio, vastly popular as a hero of Indian conflicts as well as the War of 1812. He was regarded, like Jackson, as a representative of the democratic West. His vice presidential candidate was John Tyler -- a Virginian whose views on states' rights and a low tariff were popular in the South. Harrison won a sweeping victory. Within a month of his inauguration, however, the 68-year-old Harrison died, and Tyler became president. Tyler's beliefs differed sharply from those of Clay and Webster, still the most influential men in the country. Before Tyler's term was over, these differences led to an open break between the president and the party that had elected him. Americans, however, found themselves divided in more complex ways than simple partisan conflicts between Whigs and Democrats. For example, the large number of Catholic immigrants in the first half of the 19th century, primarily Irish and German, triggered a backlash among native-born Protestant Americans. Immigrants brought more than strange new customs and religious practices to American shores. They competed with the native-born for jobs in cities along the Eastern seaboard. Moreover, political changes in the 1820s and 1830s increased the political clout of the foreign born. During those two decades, state constitutions were revised to permit universal white-male suffrage. This led to the end of rule by patrician politicians, who blamed the immigrants for their fall from power. Finally, the Catholic Church's failure to support the temperance movement gave rise to charges that Rome was trying to subvert the United States through alcohol. The most important of the nativist organizations that sprang up in this period was a secret society, the Order of the Star-Spangled Banner, founded in 1849. When its members refused to identify themselves, they were swiftly labeled the "Know-Nothings." In 1853 the Know-Nothings in New York City organized a Grand Council, which devised a new constitution to centralize control over the state organizations. Among the chief aims of the Know-Nothings were an extension in the period required for naturalization from five to 21 years, and the exclusion of the foreign-born and Catholics from public office. In 1855 the organization managed to win control of legislatures in New York and Massachusetts; by 1855, about 90 U.S. congressmen were linked to the party. Disagreements over the slavery issue prevented the party from playing a role in national politics. The Know-Nothings of the South supported slavery while Northern members opposed it. At a convention in 1856 to nominate candidates for president and vice president, 42 Northern delegates walked out when a motion to support the Missouri Compromise was ignored, and the party died as a national force. The frontier did much to shape American life. Conditions along the entire Atlantic seaboard stimulated migration to the newer regions. From New England, where the soil was incapable of producing high yields of grain, came a steady stream of men and women who left their coastal farms and villages to take advantage of the rich interior land of the continent. In the backcountry settlements of the Carolinas and Virginia, people handicapped by the lack of roads and canals giving access to coastal markets, and suffering from the political dominance of the Tidewater planters, also moved westward. By 1800 the Mississippi and Ohio River valleys were becoming a great frontier region. "Hi-o, away we go, floating down the river on the O-hi-o," became the song of thousands of migrants. The westward flow of population in the early 19th century led to the division of old territories and the drawing of new boundaries. As new states were admitted, the political map stabilized east of the Mississippi River. From 1816 to 1821, six states were created -- Indiana, Illinois and Maine (which were free states), and Mississippi, Alabama and Missouri (slave states). The first frontier had been tied closely to Europe, the second to the coastal settlements, but the Mississippi Valley was independent and its people looked west rather than east. Frontier settlers were a varied group. One English traveler described them as "a daring, hardy race of men, who live in miserable cabins.... They are unpolished but hospitable, kind to strangers, honest and trustworthy. They raise a little Indian corn, pumpkins, and hogs and sometimes have a cow or two.... But the rifle is their principal means of support." Dexterous with the axe, snare and fishing line, these men blazed the trails, built the first log cabins and confronted Native American tribes, whose land they occupied. As more and more settlers penetrated the wilderness, many became farmers as well as hunters. A comfortable log house with glass windows, a chimney and partitioned rooms replaced the cabin; the well replaced the spring. Industrious settlers would rapidly clear their land of timber, burning the wood for potash and letting the stumps decay. They grew their own grain, vegetables and fruit; ranged the woods for deer, wild turkeys and honey; fished the nearby streams; looked after cattle and hogs. Land speculators bought large tracts of the cheap land and, if land values rose, sold their holdings and moved still farther west, making way for others. Doctors, lawyers, storekeepers, editors, preachers, mechanics and politicians soon followed the farmers. The farmers were the sturdy base, however. Where they settled, they intended to stay and hoped their children would remain after them. They built large barns and brick or frame houses. They brought improved livestock, plowed the land skillfully and sowed productive seed. Some erected flour mills, sawmills and distilleries. They laid out good highways, built churches and schools. Incredible transformations were accomplished in a few years. In 1830, for example, Chicago, Illinois, was merely an unpromising trading village with a fort; but long before some of its original settlers had died, it had become one of the largest and richest cities in the nation. Farms were easy to acquire. Government land after 1820 could be bought for $1.25 for about half a hectare, and after the 1862 Homestead Act, could be claimed by merely occupying and improving it. In addition, tools for working the land were easily available. It was a time when, in a phrase written by John Soule and popularized by journalist Horace Greeley, young men could "go west and grow with the country." Except for a migration into Mexican-owned Texas, the westward march of the agricultural frontier did not pass Missouri until after 1840. In 1819, in return for assuming the claims of American citizens to the amount of $5 million, the United States obtained from Spain both Florida and Spain's rights to the Oregon country in the Far West. In the meantime, the Far West had become a field of great activity in the fur trade, which was to have significance far beyond the value of the skins. As in the first days of French exploration in the Mississippi Valley, the trader was a pathfinder for the settlers beyond the Mississippi. The French and Scots-Irish trappers, exploring the great rivers and their tributaries and discovering all the passes of the Rocky and Sierra Mountains, made possible the overland migration of the 1840s and the later occupation of the interior of the nation. Overall, the growth of the nation was enormous: population grew from 7.25 million to more than 23 million from 1812 to 1852, and the land available for settlement increased by almost the size of Europe -- from 4.4 million to 7.8 million square kilometers. Still unresolved, however, were the basic conflicts rooted in sectional differences which, by the decade of the 1860s, would explode into civil war. Inevitably, too, this westward expansion brought settlers into conflict with the original inhabitants of the land: the Indians. In the first part of the 19th century, the most prominent figure associated with these conflicts was Andrew Jackson, the first "Westerner" to occupy the White House. In the midst of the War of 1812, Jackson, then in charge of the Tennessee militia was sent into southern Alabama, where he ruthlessly put down an uprising of Creek Indians. The Creeks soon ceded two-thirds of their land to the United States. Jackson later routed bands of Seminole Indians from their sanctuaries in Spanish-owned Florida. In the 1820s, President Monroe's secretary of war, John C. Calhoun, pursued a policy of removing the remaining tribes from the old Southwest and resettling them beyond the Mississippi. Jackson continued this policy as president. In 1830 Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, providing funds to transport the eastern tribes beyond the Mississippi. In 1834 a special Indian territory was set up in what is now Oklahoma. In all, the tribes signed 94 treaties during Jackson's two terms, ceding millions of hectares to the federal government and removing dozens of tribes from their ancestral homelands. Perhaps the most egregious chapter in this unfortunate history concerned the Cherokees, whose lands in western North Carolina and Georgia had been guaranteed by treaty since 1791. Among the most progressive of the eastern tribes, the Cherokees' fate was sealed when gold was discovered on their land in 1829. Even a favorable ruling from the Supreme Court proved little help. With the acquiescence of the Jackson administration, the Cherokees were forced to make the long and cruel trek to Oklahoma in 1835. Many died of disease and privation in what became known as the "Trail of Tears."

Chapter 11 One that exacerbated the regional and economic differences between North and South: slavery. Resenting the large profits amassed by Northern businessmen from marketing the cotton crop, Southerners attributed the backwardness of their own section to Northern aggrandizement. Northerners, on the other hand, declared that slavery -- the "peculiar institution," which the South regarded as essential to its economy -- was wholly responsible for the region's relative backwardness. As far back as 1830, sectional lines had been steadily hardening on the slavery question. In the North, abolitionist feeling grew more and more powerful, abetted by a free-soil movement vigorously opposed to the extension of slavery into the Western regions not yet organized as states. To Southerners of 1850, slavery was a condition for which they felt no more responsible than for their English speech or their representative institutions. In some seaboard areas, slavery by 1850 was well over 200 years old; it was an integral part of the basic economy of the region. Only a minority of Southern whites owned slaves. In 1860 there were a total of 46,274 planters throughout the slave-holding states, with a planter defined as someone who owned at least 20 slaves. More than half of all slaves worked on plantations. Some of the yeoman farmers, 70 percent of whom held less than 40 hectares, had a handful of slaves, but most had none. The "poor whites" lived on the lowest rung of Southern society and held no slaves. It is easy to understand the interest of the planters in slave holding -- they owned most of the slaves. But the yeomen and poor whites supported the institution of slavery as well. They feared that if freed, blacks would compete with them for land. Equally important, the presence of slaves raised the standing of the yeomen and the poor whites on the social scale; they would not willingly relinquish this status. As they fought the weight of Northern opinion, political leaders of the South, the professional classes and most of the clergy now no longer apologized for slavery but championed it. Southern publicists insisted, for example, that the relationship between capital and labor was more humane under the slavery system than under the wage system of the North. Before 1830 the old patriarchal system of plantation government, with its personal supervision of the slaves by their masters, was still characteristic. Gradually, however, with the introduction of large-scale cotton production in the lower South, the master gradually ceased to exercise close personal supervision over his slaves, and employed professional overseers whose tenure depended upon their ability to exact from slaves a maximum amount of work. Slavery was inherently a system of brutality and coercion in which beatings and the breakup of families through the sale of individuals were commonplace. In the end, however, the most trenchant criticism of slavery was not the behavior of individual masters and overseers toward the slaves, but slavery's fundamental violation of every human being's inalienable right to be free. In national politics, Southerners chiefly sought protection and enlargement of the interests represented by the cotton-slavery system. Expansion was considered a necessity because the wastefulness of cultivating a single crop, cotton, rapidly exhausted the soil, increasing the need for new fertile lands. Moreover, the South believed it needed new territory for additional slave states to offset the admission of new free states. Antislavery Northerners saw in the Southern view a conspiracy for proslavery aggrandizement, and in the 1830s their opposition became fierce. An earlier antislavery movement, an offshoot of the American Revolution, had won its last victory in 1808 when Congress abolished the slave trade with Africa. Thereafter, opposition was largely by the Quakers, who kept up a mild but ineffectual protest, while the cotton gin and westward expansion into the Mississippi delta region were creating an increasing demand for slaves. The abolitionist movement that emerged in the early 1830s was combative, uncompromising and insistent upon an immediate end to slavery. This approach found a leader in William Lloyd Garrison, a young man from Massachusetts, who combined the heroism of a martyr with the crusading zeal of a demagogue. On January 1, 1831, Garrison produced the first issue of his newspaper, //The Liberator//, which bore the announcement: "I shall strenuously contend for the immediate enfranchisement of our slave population.... On this subject I do not wish to think, or speak, or write with moderation.... I am in earnest -- I will not equivocate -- I will not excuse -- I will not retreat a single inch AND I WILL BE HEARD." Garrison's sensational methods awakened Northerners to the evil in an institution many had long come to regard as unchangeable. He sought to hold up to public gaze the most repulsive aspects of slavery and to castigate slave holders as torturers and traffickers in human life. He recognized no rights of the masters, acknowledged no compromise, tolerated no delay. Other abolitionists, unwilling to subscribe to his law-defying tactics, held that reform should be accomplished by legal and peaceful means. Garrison was joined by another powerful voice, that of Frederick Douglass, an escaped slave who galvanized Northern audiences as a spokesman for the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society, and later as the eloquent editor of the abolitionist weekly newspaper, //Northern Star//. One phase of the antislavery movement involved helping slaves escape to safe refuges in the North or over the border into Canada. Known as the "Underground Railroad," an elaborate network of secret routes was firmly established in the 1830s in all parts of the North, with its most successful operation being in the old Northwest Territory. In Ohio alone, it is estimated that from 1830 to 1860 no fewer than 40,000 fugitive slaves were helped to freedom. The number of local antislavery societies increased at such a rate that by 1840 there were about 2,000 with a membership of perhaps 200,000. Despite the efforts of active abolitionists to make slavery a question of conscience, most Northerners held themselves aloof from the antislavery movement or actively opposed it. In 1837, for example, a mob attacked and killed the antislavery editor Elijah P. Lovejoy in Alton, Illinois. But certain Southern actions allowed the abolitionists to link the slavery issue with the cause of civil liberties for whites. In 1835 an angry mob destroyed abolitionist literature in the Charleston, South Carolina, post office. When the postmaster stated he would not enforce delivery of abolitionist material, bitter debates ensued in Congress. In addition, abolitionists decided to flood Congress with petitions calling for a ban on slavery in the District of Columbia. In 1836 the House voted to table such petitions automatically, thus effectively killing them. Former President John Quincy Adams, elected to the House of Representatives in 1830, fought this so-called "gag rule" as a violation of the First Amendment. The House repealed the gag rule in 1844. Final thoughts

Although I have really enjoyed the chapters I have read so far. I have yet to find many ideas, concepts, and people that I can use teaching 4th grade Alabama History. That is until I reached Chapter 10 and Chapter 11. Both of these chapters tie in nicely to Alabama History and have a great foundation upon which I can build from. The previous nine chapters do an excellent job of narrating early Americans and how they handled the trials and tribulations of creating a new nation. The ideas and concepts expressed therein can be used as background knowledge when discussing how Alabama came into being and the struggles that early Alabamians faced when creating a new state and constitution. Review of: Founding Brothers By: Joseph J. Ellis This book is truly a gem: small, well-crafted, brilliant, and the result of countless hours of hard labor. How many other historians could take a topic as vast as the American revolution, choose precisely those incidents and communications which best illuminate the key principles and principals, throw everything else out, and end up with an engaging series of seven stories that concludes in a mere 248 pages? It's hard to imagine a better introduction to the history of the American Revolution. Ellis does not attempt to provide exhaustive coverage of every major event over the time period, and he correctly and thankfully avoids a blow-by-blow description of the battles of the war, since the fighting is not directly relevant to the meaning of the revolution. The focus instead is on the character of the key individuals, their different thoughts on what the revolution was about, and how the leadership was able to find a way to start a new political system that has managed to survive for over 200 years. Besides being an excellent historical overview of the revolution, there is much in Founding Brothers that is directly relevant to today's political discourse. Our country is still debating the proper role of governmental authority and the people (witness the California recall election), idealism versus realism (witness the debate over the war in Iraq), and statesmanship versus partisan politics (just pick up the newspaper). It is fascinating to read what our country's founders had to say about these issues and the strenuous debates that they had, most of which they couldn't resolve definitively either, and which were ultimately decided by razor thin votes (the 2000 presidential election). Founding Brothers has inspired me to learn more about the thoughts and characters of the founders. When I get to Adams and Jefferson, I may very well choose Ellis's books, since he researches his subjects thoroughly, writes very well, and looks at issues from multiple perspectives. Founding Brothers is a great place to start a study of the topic, and hopefully the recognition the Pulitzer committee gave this book will ensure that it is read by as many people as possible.

=Clara N. Billups, Brighton Middle School=


 * Founding Brothers**

The founding brothers were not a unified group. They did not speak with one voice and in many cases they did not like each other. They were honorable and disloyal, self-sacrificing and opportunistic. They were often petty and sometimes heroic. They created the Union, but couldn't (do?) rid it of slavery. "The Adams style was to confront, shout, rant, and then to embrace. The Jefferson style was to evade, maintain pretenses, then convince him that all was well." Adams is elevated. Jefferson's "sphinx-like image" is tarnished. Burr and Hamilton add drama. Washington, though human, manages to stay above left us with lessons for today and words of wisdom. Washington admonished "that no nation is to be trusted farther than it is bound by its interest; and no prudent statesman or politician will venture to depart from it." Ellis credits Washington with "the strategy of enlightened procrastination." Staying alive against a superior force will ultimately make victory possible. If Washington were leading us today, perhaps we (The United States) would not have blundered into a costly and futile occupation. We become trapped in the cross-hairs; the enemy only needs to survive.

Barbara Estates The foundation of our United States democratic government is a most familiar story. However, Joseph Ellis tells it from “behind the scenes” so to speak. He gave insight into those diverse personalities that were given the task of creating a democracy, on paper, that they hoped would work. The people involved in this book were those you always thought of as noble. Ellis was able to peel off the façade and give the reader insight into these most notable gentlemen, the events in which they were involved, their individual circumstances and their hidden agendas. The part I found most engaging was, of course, the duel. Its most detailed and sometimes trivial information was most spellbinding. The most confusing was that which detailed the fiscal and economics of the time. Money and banking have never been of personal interest especially on the scale upon which our country must operate. I do no teach this particular era of history in my sixth grade classroom. However, the gleaned information is excellent for validation of the times and for reference. I am sure all the information I gleaned about this period of time via the research and time Ellis spent, will be revisited when it is needed for reference and application.

=**Brenda Hollis, Bagley Jr. High**=

... If there is a central idea that runs through the opening chapters, it concerns the weaknesses of the early years of the republic. The question of slavery was so fiery that most founding fathers avoided discussing it at all. The wisdom and bravery of John Adams shine during this period. I used several of the stories in my classroom to hook my students on the unit. …..The descriptive personalities of Jefferson, Madison, Washington, and many more, all com to life through his words and make it easy to relate these prominent men to my students. How Washington was truly a larger than life figure during this period in history, as well as today. It really amazes me on how America survived in the early days and how the constitution truly formed our history today. …...Using this book my students did an activity where they became the characters during this period and did dialog and enactment of this period. They were actively engaged and loved learning about our founding fathers. Book Summary: Founding Brothers (Constitutional Era) ... If there is a central idea that runs through the opening chapters, it concerns the weaknesses of the early years of the republic. The question of slavery was so fiery that most founding fathers avoided discussing it at all. The wisdom and bravery of John Adams shine during this period. I used several of the stories in my classroom to hook my students on the unit. …..The descriptive personalities of Jefferson, Madison, Washington, and many more, all com to life through his words and make it easy to relate these prominent men to my students. How Washington was truly a larger than life figure during this period in history, as well as today. It really amazes me on how America survived in the early days and how the constitution truly formed our history today. …...Using this book my students did an activity where they became the characters during this period and did dialog and enactment of this period. They were actively engaged and loved learning about our founding fathers. If there is a central idea that runs through the opening chapters, it concerns the weaknesses of the early years of the republic. The question of slavery was so fiery that most founding fathers avoided discussing it at all. The wisdom and bravery of John Adams shine during this period. I used several of the stories in my classroom to hook my students on the unit. …..The descriptive personalities of Jefferson, Madison, Washington, and many more, all com to life through his words and make it easy to relate these prominent men to my students. How Washington was truly a larger than life figure during this period in history, as well as today. It really amazes me on how America survived in the early days and how the constitution truly formed our history today. …...Using this book my students did an activity where they became the characters during this period and did dialog and enactment of this period. They were actively engaged and loved learning about our founding fathers.
 * Book Summary: Founding Brothers (Constitutional Era) ||

=**Sylvea Hollis, Birmingham Civil Rights Institute**= __The American Journey (Ch. 7-11) & Founding Brothers__

__Chapter Summary__

The republican ideals of the new nation established some social and political boundaries for a segment of the population. Republicans limited political rights tow white male property owners. These restrictions were discriminatory towards, women, minorities, and a small population of poor white men.

African American men were permitted to vote after the abolition of slavery in some states. Slavery ended in many northern states between 1777 and 1784; however, New York and New Jersey were slow to change. The text inaccurately states that slavery was abolished in New York in the year of 1799. It was actually declared to end in 1799, but did not end completely until 1827. The decree was gradual.

The nation’s formation introduced a litany of “now what” type questions. America was established as conglomeration of states with ideals as diverse as its geography. The southern states were establishing themselves on the foundation of slavery and chiefly agrarian livign, the northeast was primarily seafaring and whaling type industry and the backcountry remained to be in a states of military warfare with natives.

__Book Summary/Analysis__

The founding fathers of this nation found themselves in very ambitious places and despite a good deal of hardships to overcome. These gentlemen were bound by moral fiber as well as the quest to redefine themselves through the formation of this new government.

__Classroom Implementation (Civil Rights Outreach Programming)__ -Painting of women voters in New Jersey on page 171 of T//he American Journey// (TAJ) Gender, Economics, Voting -Sketch of Phillis Wheatley on page 172 of TAJ Race, Slavery, Gender -Alexander McGillavay sketch by John Trumbull, page 183 of TAJ Economics, Status, Race

=**Jerme Kirk, Hillview Elementary School**= //Founding Brothers// //(Constitutional Era by Joseph Ellis)// During the 1790s, which Ellis calls the most decisive decade in our nation's history, the greatest statesmen of their generation -- and perhaps of any -- came together to define the new republic and direct its course for the coming centuries. Ellis focuses on six discrete moments that exemplify the most crucial issues facing the fragile new nation. These include: Burr and Hamilton's deadly duel and what may have really happened, Hamilton, Jefferson, and Madison's secret dinner, during which the seat of the permanent capital was determined in exchange for passage of Hamilton's financial plan, Franklin's petition to end the "peculiar institution" of slavery -- his last public act -- and Madison's efforts to quash it, Washington's precedent-setting Farewell Address, announcing his retirement from public office and offering his country some final advice, Adams's difficult term as Washington's successor and his alleged scheme to pass the presidency on to his son, and finally, Adams and Jefferson's renewed correspondence at the end of their lives, in which they compared their different views of the Revolution and its legacy. In a lively and engaging narrative, Ellis recounts the sometimes collaborative, sometimes archly antagonistic interactions between several men. He shows us the private characters behind the public person of Adams. Adams was the ever-combative iconoclast, whose closest political collaborator was his wife Abigail. Adams was known to be, crafty, smooth, and one of the most despised public figures of his time. The books aid in our understanding of Hamilton, whose audacious manner and deep economic savvy masked his humble origins. Jefferson, is depicted as renowned because of his eloquence, but so reclusive and taciturn that he rarely spoke more than a few sentences in public. Madison is considered small, sickly, and extremely shy, yet one of the most effective debaters of his generation. Lastingly the stiffly formal Washington is the ultimate realist who is larger-than-life, and America's only truly indispensable figure. Ellis argues that the checks and balances that permitted the infant American republic to endure were not primarily legal, constitutional, or institutional, but intensely personal, rooted in the dynamic interaction of leaders with quite different visions and values. Revisiting the old-fashioned idea that character matters, //Founding Brothers// informs our understanding of American politics -- then and now -- and gives us a new perspective on the unpredictable forces that shape history. The American Journey Chapter 7 through 9 Chapter 7 the First Republic: Between 1776 and 1780, America developed a unique system of constitutionalism. They proclaimed the supremacy of constitutions over ordinary legislation detailed the powers of government in a written document provided protection for individual freedom in bills of rights and fashioned a process for framing government through election of delegates to a special constitutional convention and the popular ratification of the work of that convention. The foundation was being built and considered lying of an infrastructure. These early Americans created a central government built on one concept of freedom. The Constitution thus set the stage for an entirely new kind of national politics.

Chapter 8 a New Republic and the Rise of Parties: With any new beginning sometimes things will not go as smoothly. That is what happened to Samuel Adams despite his extradinarily rich background in public affair, he was politically naïve. Scrupulously honest but quick to take offense, he lacked the politician’s touch for inspiring personal loyalty and crafting compromises based on a realistic recognition of mutual self-interest. The price he paid was a badly split between Federalist Party. The Party refused to unite behind him when he sought re-election in 1800.

Chapter 9 the Triumph and Collapse of Jeffersonian Republicanism: In 1800, the Republican was an untested party who’s coming into power frightened many Federalist. This power resulted in the federalist lost of the Union and constructional government. In turn, the republicans also paved the way for the nation to evolve as a democratic republic rather than the more aristocratic preferred by the Federalists. __Founding Brothers__ by Joseph J. Ellis Chapter 2 The Dinner Sommer Brown This particular chapter was interesting for three reasons. It gave us insight into the political maneuvers of three of America’s founding fathers. Madison, a southerner, was against the assumption of the debt because he felt it was unfair to the states who had substantially repaid their war debt. Hamilton felt the nation needed to speak with one voice and the repayment of debt was important to establish credibility of the new government in the eye’s of the world. Jefferson, a peace maker, proposed a meeting on neutral ground, a dinner at his home. A compromise was reached by establishing the national capital in the southern colonies. Secondly, this chapter taught us about the men involved. Madison was a man small in stature. His political style was negotiation but always maintaining a firm belief in what he wanted to accomplish. Hamilton was a brawler. Compromise was not in his nature. Jefferson in contrast to the other men was tall and imposing. However, he was the complete negotiator. Harmony was always his goal. Finally, this chapter gave us insight into the founding of the country. Jefferson, always the peace maker, wanted all laws to have an expiration date. His theory was that as the country evolved the current legislature would be better able to establish laws to properly guide the citizenry. Hamilton and Madison both believed that anarchy could erupt without a permanent foundation that is our constitution.

__Founding Brothers__ by Joseph J. Ellis Sommer Brown Founding Brothers is a book about the early years of the country following the American Revolution. The author focused on six main issues. 1) The compromise between Hamilton and Madison that established the assumption of war debt and the national capital in what is now Washington D.C. 2) The duel between Hamilton and Burr. 3) The issue of slavery. 4) The Washington administration and his decision not to run for a third term. 5) The election of the second president. 6) The friendship between Adams and Jefferson. It was particularly interesting the author’s discussion on the issue of slavery. I realized that slavery had been a divisor between the north and south from the beginning. Benjamin Franklin, a northerner, supported the abolition of slavery. Madison, a Virginian, opposed him. The congress made a compromise and sowed the seeds of the Civil War by determining that congress did not have the authority to interfere. I also thought it interesting that criticism of the presidency is not a modern invention. George Washington was so beleaguered by his critics that he decided not to run for a third term. The author completed his book by telling the story of the friendships amongst these men. These seven founding fathers came from different geographical and economic backgrounds. They had differing opinions about the course of this new country. But, their common belief that America was a cause worth fighting for made them compromise and establish the foundation that we enjoy today. Jeremy Campbell September 29, 2007

//The American Journey// Chapters 7-9

After winning independence from Great Britain, most Americans were apprehensive of a government that placed too much power in the hands of a central office. Taking this fear into consideration, delegates drafted the nation’s first constitution, The Articles of Confederation. This document proved to be weak, placing too much authority in the hands of state governments, while leaving the national legislative branch virtually powerless. As a result, most of the States sent delegates to Philadelphia in order to revise the flawed document. Although constant disagreements occurred, the founding fathers were able to come to a compromise. The end result was any entirely new constitution. The diversity exhibited at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia represented the cross-section of American life during the early days of the republic. Each geographical region of the United States had vastly different views on what direction the country should take. Some views seemed to be incompatible with one another. These views manifest themselves in the creation of the first political parties. The opposing views of these political parties proved—as George Washington predicted—divisive. With the election of Thomas Jefferson in 1800, a new age in American politics emerged—an era of Republicanism—one in which the United States gained a substantial portion of land, nearly doubling its size. However, the already fragile Anglo-American relations began to break down, resulting in the War of 1812. Republicans became more flexible, moving toward the Federalist idea a stronger central government. This period, “The Era of Good Feelings”, was marked by cooperation and a strong sense of nationalism. Jeremy Campbell September 29, 2007

Ellis, Joseph J. //Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation//. New York: Vintage Books, 2000.

The years following the American Revolution proved to be a critical time in the history of the United States. How the “revolutionary generation” handled such a daunting task of creating a new government would make or break, so to speak, the republic. In fact, as Joseph Ellis argues, “there were only two instances in Western history when the leadership of an imperial power performed as well…as anyone could reasonably expect” (p.16). With a remarkably fluid style, Ellis attempts to answer the essential question: How was this generation able to perform so well in such an important time? Given the key players and circumstances surrounding the republic in its infancy, Ellis poses a perfectly legitimate question. As most history books state, the framers of the United States Constitution held a plethora of divergent ideologies. More often than not, these ideologies not only varied, but stood in direct contrast one another. How then, given the various personalities and ideologies of the revolutionary generation, did the country thrive in spite of such opposition? Ellis argues that it is //because// of the founders’ diversity that the United States prospered. Ellis looks at the relationships between the “founding brothers” (and one sister—Abigail Adams) in order to explain their success. Ellis aptly begins his discussion with the famous duel between Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton, which ultimately led to the untimely death of Hamilton. The feud between the two politicians serves as a microcosm of the entire generation—constant internal strife and bickering plagued the founders. However, equally appropriate, Ellis concludes his work with the restitution of the seemingly irreconcilable friendship of Thomas Jefferson and John Adams—two close friends whose diametric political viewpoints kept them from continuing their friendship. Although Ellis offers a look at the intricate relationships between the members of the “revolutionary generation,” he devotes very little attention to both Benjamin Franklin and George Washington. However, as he points out, Benjamin Franklin (actually from an earlier generation) played a key role in bringing the antislavery issue to the forefront. In his discussion of George Washington, Ellis brings to light his almost prophetic look at the divisive nature of American politics in the years to come. Additionally, Ellis does devote more attention to a lesser known member of the “revolutionary generation”: Abigail Adams. As Ellis points out, Mrs. Adams had a profound influence on her husband’s decision making, as well as a keen political sense of her own. With //Founding Brothers//, Joseph Ellis tells the sweeping story of the eight individuals that helped shape America in such critical period. He looks at both the personal and political relationships of these individuals. Ellis successfully argues that the young republic was able to thrive because of the individuals involved and their distinct ideologies. Although it appeared that some members worked against one another, it was precisely this political tug of war that created a balance that made the United States a success story. “Founding Brothers” by Joseph J.Ellis Teaching American History Grant Ryan Posey

“Founding Brothers” by Joseph J. Ellis examines the complex relationships that developed between the men responsible for founding the United States. Each chapter deals with a different event or situation and a different group of people. Ellis does an excellent job of describing these larger than life characters and of explaining the circumstances that helped to develop the character of the United States in its earliest stages. The details of these events and the personal information about the relationships that developed illustrate the strength and quality of the nation’s earliest leaders. These personalities guided and shaped the country. The book begins by discussing the most famous duel in American History between Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton. This chapter reviews the causes for the tragic duel and gives the multiple descriptions of what actually occurred. The chapter also relates the fact that Aaron Burr’s political career was ruined by this event. He is referred to as the new “Benedict Arnold” because he has killed a member of Washington’s original cabinet and the father of American economic policy. This chapter illustrates the often very serious tension that developed with political rivals. The book goes on to discuss the end of an era, in a description of George Washington’s departure from office and the men that would follow him as president. Ellis describes how anyone that had to follow Washington was doomed to live in his shadow and seem inadequate to many people. The two men that are at the forefront are John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. The book pays a great deal of attention to the relationship between these two men. The ever changing relationship moves from friends and collaborators to bitter political enemies before eventually coming full circle. These two men are described in great detail. Adams’ relationship with his wife is discussed a good deal. Ellis discusses the importance of Abigail Adams as her husband’s confidant, friend and advisor. She is also pivotal in helping maintain Jefferson and Adams relationship even during Adams’ difficult time as President. During this time period a clear contrast can be seen between these men’s character. Adams outspoken and brash and Jefferson quiet and reserved. Despite their political rivalry and blaring differences, they are both pivotal in providing strong leadership for the young government. Included in this discussion are other important figures such as James Madison the protégé of Jefferson. Ellis describes how the country is shaped for the first several decades by this group of men that were key figures in the American Revolution. Ellis’s book does an excellent job of making larger than life characters seem very human. There actions are often dictated by their emotions and they struggle with maintaining healthy relationships. One seemingly major omission is any substantial information about Benjamin Franklin considering the pivotal role he played in early American developments. Regardless the remainder of the descriptions and information is written and presented in a very accessible manner. “Founding Brothers” is an excellent resource for any teacher of American History. It can be used to provide students with personal information about these individuals and events that may often seem like works of fiction to students. Ellis is able to bring these characters to life and illustrate how these were normal people being transformed by very unusual circumstances. The American Journey Chapters 7-9 Ryan Posey

Chapters 7-9 discuss the establishment of the United States and the struggles that occurred during the “Critical Period”. These chapters deal with the writing and ratification of the Articles of Confederation as well as the Constitution. The Chapters also go into great depth describing the formation of political parties and the conflicts that were created. Each Chapter analyzes society from every angle during this time period. Chapter 7 deals with the formation of the new American government system. The text describes the Articles of Confederation and the several inherent weaknesses that became evident. The text describes how the conditions in the United States created a situation where the new confederation government was sure to fail. The problems with a lack of strong central government power became clear as economic and diplomatic problems arose. A key example of this being the events of Shays’s Rebellion. The text then goes on to describe the opposing viewpoints and how compromises were made. This includes a discussion of the New Jersey and Virginia Plan. The Chapter concludes by discussing the writing of the Constitution and its difficult process of ratification. Chapter 8 is primarily concerned with the formation of the first political parties and a discussion of the opposing ideals and leaders. This chapter examines the characters of men like John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and Alexander Hamilton. Other important topics are the writing of the Bill of Rights, the establishment of the chief executive and the beginnings of the Supreme Court. The text does an excellent job of describing the conflict between the Federalists and Anti-Federalists. Chapter 8 creates a clear image of how difficult it was to establish and maintain the new system of American Government. Chapter 9 discusses the Jeffersonian Era. The first part of the chapter looks at Jefferson changed the office of the presidency. It also discusses many big decisions he made such as the Louisiana Purchase. This discussion includes the groundbreaking explorations by Lewis and Clark. The next section deals with James Madison’s presidency and the events that lead to the War of 1812. The text discusses the beginning of the War of 1812 and the timeline of events that occur during the war, including the heroics of future president Andrew Jackson in the Creek Indian War and The Battle of New Orleans. The next portion deals with the years after the War of 1812 known as the “Era of Good Feelings”. This was a time of peaceful relations in the government and abroad. This time period does not last long due to a very divisive election in which John Quincy Adams is elected. The end of Chapter 9 begins the discussion of the slavery issue and the compromises that are needed to help settle the disputes over the issue. These chapters all do an excellent job of describing this time period when the United States was developing its identity economically, diplomatically, and socially. The descriptions and illustrations in these chapters can be used as an excellent companion to any textbook or materials already in use. I can use this text as a compliment to any lesson plan that I develop on these topics. The “American Journey” text provides a distinct presentation of information that could be very beneficial for any teacher that wishes to maximize the resources at their disposal.

Founding Brothers Debbie Butler

Joseph Ellis examines the men who were the leaders in the Revolution and beginning America creating a democratic republic government. He has taken snapshots into the lives of these men, showing the reader glimpses into the not so known aspects of their lives. In each chapter Ellis looks all the historical accounts and surmises what he believes actually happened based on the information given. He recognizes and lets the reader know, that in each story, the person giving an account does so to their credit. In other words, they wrote their version of what happened and put themselves in a positive light. In //“the duel//” chapter, while neither man it seems intended to injure the other, Hamilton still died. In”//the dinner//” chapter, Jefferson gets all the credit for getting Madison and Hamilton compromise on state debt and placement of the capital. In “//the silence//” chapter, the issue of abolition of slavery was discussed and how it almost ended the republic. In “//the farewell//” chapter, Washington’s participation in the revolutionary process as well as starting the fledgling government are briefly discussed. It is clear from reading this why Washington was ready to be out of the public eye for the remainder of his life. In //“the collaborators//” chapter, the impact of the work done by Adams and Jefferson is scrutinized. In “//the friendship//” chapter, the friendship and lack thereof between John Quincy Adams and Thomas Jefferson is examined. Ellis examines what caused the rift and how it ended. Throughout the book, Ellis makes clear that without these men, their differing ideas and passions, the country would not have begun, much less survived the early years. Debbie Butler September 29, 2007 Ch 7-9

Chapter 7: This chapter looks at the fledgling country, the United States. Life in the US is depicted, such as women’s roles post revolution. It discusses the republic form of government. Because America was a new country, it was weak and not respected by other countries. This chapter also discusses how the government and more specifically, the Constitution were created. Chapter 8: This chapter describes America during the beginning years. It looks at what was going on in each of the regions of the country, both politically and sociologically. There is also discussion about the first ten amendments added to the Constitution and their importance as well as the Acts that were passed around the same time. The emergence of political parties is discussed and what was important to the two parties. John Quincy Adams’ presidency and what happened in the last federalist administration are looked at and how politics played into the situation. Chapter 9: This chapter examines Thomas Jefferson’s presidency and what occurred during his presidency. It also looks at James Madison’s presidency and the upcoming war. The War of 1812 is also examined including Andrew Jackson’s heroic effort at the Battle of New Orleans. This chapter also looks at the Era of Good Feelings and what was involved with that. Lastly, this chapter foreshadows the upcoming break in the republic. Robert M. Adams Book Review: __Founding Brothers__, Joseph J. Ellis

In Joseph Ellis’ acknowledgements, he states the goal of this book was to, “write a modest-sized account of a massive historical subject” and in so doing, “render human and accessible that generation of political leaders customarily deified and capitalized as Founding Fathers”. As accolades and subsequent awards prove, Ellis does a masterful job of presenting the trials and tribulations of the ‘Revolutionary Generation” and through anecdotes and stories which are often times forgotten in lieu of the grander, more elaborate comprehensive history of the time period, introduces us to the human aspect of the time period. Instead of presenting a narrative history of the founding of the American Republic, Ellis assumes the role of Dorothy from the Wizard of Oz and pulls back the curtain to reveal the individuals, human as the rest of us, with faults and egos, fears and doubts, concerns and ulterior motives that improbably formulated the basis of today’s America.

Ellis utilizes six seemingly unrelated events to depict and explain the human side of the individuals to whom we collectively refer to as the “Revolutionary Generation”. In his preface, the author introduces us to the parameters in which the revolutionary generation had to operate; an oxymoronic world in which Americans were attempting to dispose of the King and Parliament and the central government they represented while replacing it with another, albeit on their terms. In this overview, Ellis summarizes the often times ironic struggles with which the founding fathers dealt, from the American Revolution to the Constitutional Convention. The subsequent chapters offer insight into the personal lives of the Founding Fathers. For example, //The Duel//, details the nuances of the feud between Alexander Hamilton, the “Little Lion of Federalism” and Aaron Burr, former Colonel and later Vice President of the U.S. Once comrades in arms during the American Revolution, these men turned bitter rivals with the development of political parties, and eventually participated in the infamous duel in which Hamilton is killed at the hands of Burr. While it appears to be a bitter, personal dispute between two individuals, the ensuing duel would have major political ramifications in the American political system. //The Dinner// details one of the most influential compromises, between two of the most influential men of the Constitutional Era. The debate over Alexander Hamilton’s financial plan, staunchly opposed by southern politicians, but one that would eventually put the new country on the road to financial recovery was the result of one many political compromises negotiated through shrewd, far-sighted political entities in this case, Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison.

//The Silence// is perhaps the most intriguing of the anecdotes presented by Ellis. In it he traces the debate over the decisive issue of slavery and the attempts by individuals, mainly in Northern states and led by influential Benjamin Franklin, to limit the institution in the new republic. The author suggest that this is the first Constitutional crisis of the young republic, one of the first that presented the argument, still utilized in different debates in present times, of “original intentions” of The Constitution’s framers. From the original deletion of the infamous “slave clause” in Jefferson’s original Declaration of Independence, to the 20 Year Clause in the Constitution, to the Northwest Ordinance, the issue of slavery would obviously be a decisive issue for years to come, one increasingly divided along sectional lines. //The Farwell// does a masterful job of portraying the genius of President Washington through his farewell address and at the same time foreshadows the future trials and tribulations of his “replacement” John Adams, being placed into the hopeless position of following Washington as President. Future events in American history would almost place Washington and his “Farewell Address” in the company of legendary Nostradomus in his ability to predict future events. The final two chapters of Ellis’ book, //The Collaborators// and //The Friendship// trace the rise, fall, and eventual renaissance of the relationship between John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. Once staunch allies in the Second Continental Congress, subsequently bitter political and personal enemies, and eventually reunited friends, Ellis traces the lives of Adams and Jefferson as two of the most influential, although polar opposite of the founding fathers. It is through case studies in Adams’ and Jefferson’s personal correspondence that we are able to enter the minds of two of the most unfathomable and enigmatic personalities of the Revolutionary Generation. It is a perfect conclusion to Ellis’ masterful text.

John Adams once wrote to his wife Abigail, “I fear that we do not have a collection of men fit for the times” in reference to the revolutionary generation. As historical hindsight would attest, he was, thankfully, as wrong as could be possible. Through his book __Founding Brothers__, Ellis effectively communicates that although the Founding Fathers were human, collectively the compromises, debates, and decisions they made rightly place them in the pantheon of American History.

Candace Heard Minor High School Teaching American History Grant Reaction to //A Little Commonwealth: Family Life in// //Plymouth// //Colony// by John Demos Demos’ work virtually ignores the quintessential fodder of most material written about the Pilgrims and focuses on their social practices. Although there are frequent reminders of the Calvinistic religious practices, they are offered as a matter of the routine of their daily life. Many Americans today, if they consider the Pilgrims at all, have an automatic set of key words that come to minds: Mayflower, piety, Indians, and the first Thanksgiving. Demos has made them appear human and approachable, for he presents them as a group of people much like us today. He showcases their dwellings, their furnishings, their fashions, and their familial structures, with their attendant roles and responsibilities. As was common throughout our colonial period, almost all rights, privileges, and customs were more freely distributed and practiced in America than they were in England. The fact that women had more choice and power in the home and community supports this statement. It is also refreshing to see how the community helped and supported those among them who were indigent or alone. Demos debunks the stereotypical Pilgrim and in his place presents a recognizable human being who functions appropriately, and surely even better than current American could or would if they were suddenly to find themselves living in 17th century Massachusetts. On Thursday, September 6, 2007, some vandals broke into a power sub-station and stripped away various items made of copper. There followed a power outage that affected 28.000 people in Adamsville and Forestdale. At school, students were exultant, thinking that no instruction could continue. My classes found themselves taking notes as I lectured without the aid of three overhead projectors. Lunch was delayed, cold sandwiches replaced hot food, and hall ways were dim. The students, though behavior was fairly good, were rattled by the occurrence. They realized how much dependency is placed upon the flow of electricity. Today, most people consider those who lived 350 years ago as benighted, yet going without electricity for 1 ½ hours discommodes us and almost brings routines to a stand-still. Perhaps, there should be more appreciation for the success of those who came before us. When vast quantities of cuneiform tablets were discovered in the ruins of Nineveh, scholars who were able to translate these writings found that the majority of the material focused on mundane day-to-day data: accounts, bills of sale, actuarial figures and demographic information. Demos found much of his information for the discourse on daily life among the Pilgrims from similar documents. Most of the documents that a society leaves behind are not comprised of monumental works of arts or theories of government but of records of ordinary activities by ordinary citizens. Such is the work of a historian. Another fact I learned from the treatise that disproved my previous assumptions was the average lifespan of the citizens and the average age at marriage of most couples. I had presumed that marriages were made at a tender age and that death occurred at a relatively young age. Perhaps the communal living and the commonwealth of friends and family, coupled with a keen sense of responsibility, contributed to a longer lifespan. The very basis of the word commonwealth is //weal//, which means a sound, healthy, and prosperous state. I noticed that Demos claimed that most all education was provided at home and he commented that the delivery of education has been “outsourced” to formal institutions. It is interesting, therefore, to consider the sharp rise in home-schooling prevalent in our society today. Perhaps a return to the practices of simpler times can make a major contribution to 21st century family life.

The American Journey Sabrina Porrill Chapter 7-9 Summaries September 29, 2007

“Chapter Seven: The First Republic 1776-1789” explores what happened to the thirteen colonies once they declared their independence from Great Britain. Each new state quickly set up a governing body and wrote out a state constitution to solidify the people’s autonomy. The first national government was set up under the Articles of Confederation. It loosely bonded the thirteen States together under a very weak one branch legislative government. The inability to tax, regulate trade, or control the individual States brought about growing national debt, Shay’s Rebellion, and an economic depression. Delegates were sent to Philadelphia in 1786 to revise the Articles, but a whole new plan for our government emerged instead. The U.S. Constitution was finally ratified and went into effect in 1787. “Chapter Eight: A New Republic and the Rise of Parties 1789-1800” covers the time period and politics surrounding George Washington and John Adam’s Presidencies. The first section of the chapter looks at the three main regions of the U.S.: the homogeneous New England States, the heterogeneous Mid-Atlantic States, and the controversial and wild South and Backcountry. It then discusses the first issues our new government faced including how to address the President, how to set up our departments and courts, how to collect revenue, how to regulate trade, and how to handle our huge national debt. The disagreements that arose on how to answer each of these issues led to the formation of two political parties: the Federalists led by Alexander Hamilton and John Adams, and the Republicans led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. When Washington announced his retirement at the end of his second term, the two parties fought for control of the government. Adams narrowly won the presidency and his term was riddled with problems including the XYZ Affair and the Alien and Sedition Acts which led to him losing his re-election to Thomas Jefferson and the Republican Party. //__Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation__// by Joseph J. Ellis is a book that looks at seven men that helped form America and its government from just prior to the American Revolution until the end of Jefferson’s Presidency in 1809. In a short preface the author explains the purpose and importance of the subject matter as well as why he chose the seven characters and specific stories he tells. “Chapter One: The Duel” examines the story of the Alexander Hamilton versus Aaron Burr duel. After reviewing what most of us learned in our high school history classes, the author goes into great detail to explain the many years and personal conflicts that led to this tragic event. He discusses the mental make-up and great differences between Hamilton and Burr. He also tries to give us the best guess as to who fired their pistol first. The duel brought about the martyrdom of Hamilton and the exile of Burr. “Chapter Two: The Dinner” discusses the mysterious dinner at Thomas Jefferson’s house one evening with Alexander Hamilton and James Madison. During this dinner, according to Jefferson, all men present talked, debated, made deals and compromised their way through one of our nation’s first and largest political hurdles this young government had ever faced. The debate was over Hamilton’s plan for the Federal assumption of State debts (which would give the Federal Government enormous power over the States) and where to locate our nation’s capital. In this chapter we see that a lot of behind the scene discussions happened over a long period of time with many more influential players involved in the final decision to assume State debt and locate the capital in Virginia. “Chapter Three: The Silence” looks at the early government’s deliberate decision to delay discussing the slavery issue on a Federal level until at least 1808. They then felt that the union of the States would be strong enough to survive without breaking apart. Even Abolitionists were willing in the end to table the ‘horrible affliction’ in order to preserve the Union. “Chapter Four: The Farewell” looks deeply into George Washington’s Farewell Address. It examines the first President’s advise to avoid political parties and entangling foreign alliances in order for the new American Government to incubate and grow stronger. “Chapter Five: The Collaborators” initially looks at the John Adams and Thomas Jefferson collaboration during the Revolution and later at the John and Abigail Adams collaboration and also the Thomas Jefferson and James Madison collaboration after the Adams and Jefferson friendship ended during the Adams Presidency. “Chapter Six: The Friendship” was the sequel to chapter five by examining the reunited friendship between John Adams and Thomas Jefferson after Jefferson’s Presidency. Their friendship was resumed through extensive letter writing between the two men during the twilight years of there lives.
 * //Sabrina Porrill//** **//September 29th, 2007//**

“Chapter Nine: The Triumph and Collapse of Jeffersonian Republicanism 1800-1824” covers the time period during Jefferson and Madison’s presidencies. It begins with a look at Jefferson’s Republican reforms and his actions that led to the Louisiana Purchase. The chapter then examines Madison’s Presidency and the events that led to the War of 1812. Then it moves onto President James Monroe’s tenure as President and the ‘Era of Good Feelings’ as well as the emergence of the Monroe Doctrine which aided our extension from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. The chapter ends with the Missouri Compromise which delayed the impending Civil War and the election in 1824 of John Quincy Adams and the rebirth of a two-party political system. April Lufkin Miller, Ed. D. TAHG Jefferson County Reading Critique September 20, 2007

//American Journey// Chapters 7, 8 & 9

This second installment of //The American Journey// by Goldfield, et al. is as informative as the first few chapters that we read. I am, however, having difficulty finding a way to comment on three chapters of material in a one page paper {this certainly helps me to identify with my students’ cries of dismay when I limit them to seemingly arbitrary guides}. Having taught American History for 12 years with several different texts1, this time I think that I will focus on information that I don’t recall learning from those previous books for this account. Goldfield and his colleagues have provided some interesting visuals that I have not seen before. These three chapters deal with the Critical period through the Corrupt Bargain, a wide expanse of material if not time (1781 – 1824). The engraving on page 171 of New Jersey women voting is unique; even though it is small, close attention allows one to note the dress of all persons present. The attire of the women, especially, lends credence to the text’s assertion that New Jersey allowed anyone “worth fifty pounds” to vote prior to 1807. It would be interesting to compare the print on page 183 of the Constitutional Convention to the more commonly produced color painting by - I’ve forgotten now if it was Turnbull or another. Regardless, this could make for an intriguing lesson bringing into the discussion not only the history but also the artistic styles of the period. Another visual for comparison is found on page 198 //General Schumaker’s Daughter;// this pen and watercolor portrait would make a nice counterpoint to any of the oil portraits which were in vogue at the time, or one could simply turn a few pages later in the text to the portrait of Dolley Madison (page 220). There are of course maps aplenty in these chapters, but they tend more to the typical - the Northwest Ordinance, the Transportation Revolution – that are found in the slew of texts that are available. I am still impressed with the book’s “Quick Review” boxes as a review tool, as well as the “Where to Learn More” section at the end of each chapter. As to the organization of information, there are places where I wish the text took a more chronological approach; it seems to jump around in places and then run in a more linear fashion in others. This was, however, the first time that I had heard of the Southwest Ordinance and it should be taught; it helps to show the continuing thread of discord concerning slavery throughout the nation’s history. Although I do wish that there was more time spent on some of the other personalities - Aaron Burr seems to get only a brief bit of attention and within this segment, John Marshall also receives short shrift. It would seem that Goldfield and friends had the same problem that I had with trying to fit so much information into so small a space.

1 Without giving full and total citations, the texts that I have used are Garraty’s American Nation, Bailey’s American Pageant and The Enduring Vision.

The American Journey Chapters 7-9 Sommer Brown Chapter 7 This chapter deals with the young country trying to establish a government. In 1777, ten states had constitutions and had some form of a bill of rights. The same year the Articles of Confederation was submitted to the states. It set up the first national government and created a loose confederation of states. Proving to have many weaknesses, the Continental Congress met again and decided on a new constitution. The new Constitution formed a national republic with a more powerful national government. It was ratified after deliberating how representation would be counted for the states. Elements of the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan were combined in the Great Compromise to determine representation. Chapter 8 The new republic and the rise of parties. The Bill of Rights was added to the Constitution in 1791. These consisted of ten amendments to the constitution that guaranteed person liberties. The Federalist and the Republican formed as the country’s two political parties after Washington stepped down as president. Chapter 9 After serving as vice-president for fours years, Thomas Jefferson was elected president. He was not the showman Washington had instead preferred to downplay his formal responsibilities. As a poor speaker he had his messages sent to Congress so he would not have to read them in person. During his first term Jefferson purchased Louisiana from the French for $15 million. Acquiring Louisiana doubled the size of the United States.

April Smith Coffey

//American Journey//, Chapters 7-9

=__Chapter 7__=

Chapter 7 of //The American Journey// discusses the steps taken to create a government in America following the Revolution. In spite of women’s initial hopes that the principles of the revolution could apply to them, politics remained exclusively the domain of men. While challenges were posed to slavery and some 50,000 slaves gained freedom, the majority of slaves were unaffected. States also began enacting new constitutions, which proved to be more like the later United States Constitution than did the Articles of Confederation. States tended to give more power to the legislature than to the executive, and in order to keep a check on the power of the legislature, each state also included a Bill of Rights in their constitutions. The document that bound these states together was the Articles of Confederation. The Articles created an extremely weak central government with no separate executive branch or judiciary. However, the Articles proved unable to relieve the new nation from its financial problems, leading to economic depression and rebellions. Additionally, the Articles placed the United States in a weak position in terms of international relations, as Congress could negotiate foreign treaties, but could not enforce them. The weaknesses of the Articles led to calls for a new Constitution, culminating in the Philadelphia Convention and the United States Constitution. Although something clearly had to be done about the Articles of Confederation, the new Constitution was not universally accepted, Its supporters, called Federalists, sought to limit the power of the states with a stronger national government. Most of the Anti-federalists, or opponents of the Constitution, were against it due to the absence of a bill of rights. =__Chapter 8__= Therefore, one of the first issues that the new government under President George Washington faced was the creation of a Bill of Rights, ten amendments that became a component of the Constitution on December 15, 1791. Other issues arose in the new government as well: what to call Washington, the creation of a federal judiciary, and the government’s growing need for revenue. In response to these matters, political parties emerged, on one side the Federalists, and on the other, the Republicans. John Adams succeeded Washington as President, but his administration was rather rocky due to the Quasi-War with the French and disunity among the Federalists. =__Chapter 9__= Republican Thomas Jefferson then became the third President of the United States. From the beginning of his administration, Jefferson preached and practiced Republican egalitarianism and desired “retrenchment,” a return to simplicity. One of Jefferson’s greatest successes as President was the Louisiana Purchase, which added a significant amount of territory to the United States. In the last year of his Presidency, Jefferson passed the Embargo Act of 1807, which forbade American ships from clearing port to any nation until Britain and France rescinded their trading restrictions on neutral ships, in an attempt to avoid war with Great Britain. However, this was simply a temporary fix, as the War of 1812 erupted during the administration of James Madison. Finally, the United States defeated Great Britain in 1815 at the Battle of New Orleans. However, considerable dissension existed in the United States during the war. Following the war, the dissension seemingly disappeared, resulting in what was known as the “Era of Good Feelings.” This era was short lived, as deep divisions within the United States soon revealed themselves concerning slavery and the varying interests of the different segments of the nation.